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The two meta-analyses of Feingold (1994) and Costa, Terracciano and McCrae (2001) collated findings of studies on personality traits from many different age groups and nations. The answer to the question ‘are there sex differences in personality traits?’ is: ‘yes,’ and these differences, while small-to-medium in effect size, are in line with expectations. The first of the meta-analyses reported that, across cultures (Canada, China, Finland, Germany, Poland and Russia), males score higher on assertiveness measures, whereas females score higher on anxiety, trust and tender-mindedness (Feingold, 1994). The second of the meta-analyses studied a much broader array of traits, and a wider range of cultures, including Africa, South America, and central and eastern Asia (Costa, Terracciano and McCrae, 2001). Costa and colleagues reported that women were higher in negative affect, submissiveness and nurturance; men were higher in dominance and were less concerned with feelings than with ideas.

Some cultures showed greater differences than others; contrary to expectation, individualistic cultures showed wider sex differences than collectivistic cultures. Overall, however, the two meta-analyses, covering hundreds of studies, show that there are consistent sex differences in personality - in emotional (N), agreeableness and dominance-related traits - both within and across cultures.
Curiously, gender differences in children seem to be different. Else-Questet al. (2006) conducted a meta-analysis of temperamental factors that are precursors of personality (see chapter 3). The largest gender difference was in effortful control, which may support later conscientiousness; girls scored higher. Boys were higher than girls in surgency (extraverted qualities including activity and high-intensity pleasure). Again, contrasting with the adult data, differences in negative emotionality were negligible. Developmental changes in gender differences in personality might reflect either sex differences in the maturation of the brain, or social forces (or some interaction of the two).

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There are a priori arguments why we might expect structural models of traits to replicate across cultures. If traits do have a biological basis, then they should be a property of homo sapiens rather than of any particular culture, although the way the biological substrate is expressed in behaviour may be culture bound.
Irrespective of biology, it is likely that different cultures face somewhat similar adaptive challenges. All people must cope with threats to well-being, form social relationships with others, obtain a livelihood, and so forth. Goldberg (1990) has loosely related the Big Five to Power, Love,Work, Affect and Intellect (i.e., E, A, C, N and O). It is likely that these five areas of life may be identified in all or most cultures, even if there are important cross-cultural differences. More generally still, Pinker (1994) has suggested thatWestern culture is rediscovering the concept of human nature. The twentieth century was characterised by what Pinker called the Standard Social Science Model (SSSM), which states that human behaviour is wholly or largely determined by culture-bound social learning (popularly, but wrongly, described as ‘conditioning’). Pinker claims that anthropologists have overstated the malleability of behaviour, and have frequently ignored similarities between cultures. If our species does have a common ‘human nature’, which may be biologically influenced, wemight expect that individual difference dimensions should show some similarities across cultures.

Nevertheless, there are potential obstacles to establishing trait universality. Cultural specificity may be strong enough to substantially alter the relative impor- tance of traits. For example, given that cultures differ in the value placed upon achievement motivation (McClelland, 1961), it might be that conscientiousness is less salient in some non-Western societies than it is in our own, or that C is not expressed through achievement striving. We can measure a distinctive ‘Protestant work ethic’ (Furnham, 1990) trait related to Western cultural values. Conversely, other traits might be more important in societies other than our own. For example, Bond (1979, 2000) discusses a ‘filial piety’ or ‘Chinese tradition’ trait found in Chinese cultures, which places high value upon respect for parents and upholding Chinese ways. In addition, a sixth factor - Interpersonal Relatedness - was obtained in factor analyses of the NEO- PI-R and the Chinese Personality Assessment Inventory (Cheung et al., 2001). Hence, we cannot, a priori, be confident that the Western ‘Big Five’ is assessing universal traits as opposed to traits that reflect the preoccupations of our culture. In addition, there are methodological difficulties in translating Western questionnaires into the languages of other cultures, because item content and differences in compliance of responding are culture bound. One of the versions of the 16PF includes items asking, variously, about interest in improvements in production and marketing, in Indian murders, in photography and in becoming a research chemist!
In the next days, we review empirical studies of the cross-cultural generality of two major descriptive frameworks for personality, the Eysenckian three and the Big Five. We focus on questions of dimensional structure. This is a distinct issue from that of cross-cultural differences in mean scores on trait dimensions, though comparison of means is sensible only if commonality of dimensional structure is established (see Lynn andMartin, 1995, for a survey of data). Triandis (1997) describes the structural approach as ‘etics’. This contrasts with ‘emics’, in which traits specific to individual cultures are identified. There has also been considerable research on generality of factor structure across different groups within the same culture, such as comparisons across sex, age and different ethnic groups. Summarises studies of sex differences. Normally, factor structure is highly replicable across different demographic groups (e.g., Costa,McCrae and Dye, 1991). In the sections that follow, we concentrate on etics first, and emics second - both are important in building our understanding of personality cross-culturally.

Now let's say you're walking down the street with these thoughts. Do you think anyone who would meet you would be able to tell what you have in mind?

The answer to number one is up to you. But, the answer number two can be quite generic. Although people will not be able to say exactly what he thinks, it will be more or less have an idea of how you feel.

Here's another question. When you enter a party full of friends, is what everyone is silent as if something terrible had happened? Or does everyone perk up as if waiting for something exciting to happen?

You know what? The answer to all these depends on your mood.

Thoughts are very powerful. They affect your general attitude. The attitude you carry reflects on your appearance, too - unless, of course, you're a great actor.

And does not end there. Your attitude can also affect people around you.

The type of attitude you carry depends on you. It can be positive or negative.

Positive thoughts have a filling effect. They are certainly encouraging. In addition, people around the person carrying positive thoughts are usually energized by this type of attitude.

Negative thoughts on the other hand have a weakening effect on others. Apart from making you look gloomy and sad, negative thoughts can turn a festive gathering at a wake.

A positive attitude attracts people, while a negative attitude repels them. People tend to stay away from those who carry a negative attitude.

We can also define attitude as a way of seeing the world. If you choose to focus on the negative things in the world, more or less have a negative attitude brewing up. However, if you choose to focus on positive things, it is more likely to lead to a positive attitude.

You have much to gain from a positive attitude. On the one hand, studies have shown that a positive outlook promotes better health. People with this kind of attitude also have more friends. projecting a positive attitude also helps us manage stress and problems better than those with a negative attitude.

A positive attitude begins with a healthy self-image. If you love the way they are and are satisfied, confident and sure of himself, also make others feel about the same way.

A negative attitude, however, has, of course, the opposite effect. Therefore lead to a negative attitude has a double disadvantage. You feel bad about yourself, and make others feel the same way.

If you want to have a positive attitude, you have to offer healthy thoughts. This is probably very difficult to do nowadays since, all around us, the media feeds us nothing but negative thoughts. A study shows that for every 14 things a parent tells his child, only one is positive. This is truly a sad thought.

If you want a healthier outlook in life, you need to think happy thoughts, and you have to hear positive things as well. So what can you do? Well, for starters, you could see a funny movie, you could play with children, spend some time telling jokes with friends. All these activities fill with positive stimuli, which in turn promotes positive attitude.

Although it is impossible to keep ourselves negative things that surround us, you can still carry a positive attitude by focusing on the good things, positive things in life.

And this positive attitude you now carry can be of benefit to others. Sometimes when people feel down, the thing people mostly do is try to give advice. But sometimes, all they need is someone to sit with them and listen. If you have a positive outlook may be able to animate without even having to say anything.

If positive attitude is really great, why people choose to adopt a negative attitude instead? One who carries a negative attitude may be actually sending a warning signal. Before you get me wrong, sad, angry or sad is not in itself bad. But to insist on these thoughts for too long is not healthy either. There is a time to mourn.

As always, if you are suffering from various problems, even in its darkest hour, focus on the good things in life, you will always have hope. Problems become something you can overcome.

There is little to lose by adopting a healthy and positive attitude. Studies show that such an attitude actually retards aging, makes you healthier, helps you develop a coping mechanism stress better, and has a very positive effect on all people who meet every day. So what's not to like about a positive attitude? Adopt one today.

The Personality Astro Chart. Another type of Myers – Briggs test. What is your type?

Each of us has some unique features that makes as different. If you look at little children you can see differences in the way they play, speak or in their preferences. These are our unique gifts. Our personality.

Usually the traits are measured by questionnaires. But what if we try a different approach? An astrological one. To realize this goal, we used all the aspects in the astrochart, as planets in signs, houses, aspects, rulers of the houses, everything that makes us what we are. Can we find our genetic predisposition? Try it for free and find out who you really are.

Test is READY. Check it out HERE.